Peer-Reviewed Evidence of Persistence of Lyme Disease Spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi and Tick-Borne Diseases

The following is a list of over 700 peer-reviewed articles that support the evidence of persistence  of Lyme and other tick-borne diseases. It is organized into different categories—general,  neuropsychiatric, dementia and congenital transmission.

General: Persistence of Lyme Disease Spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi

  1. Abele DC, Anders KH. The many faces and phases of borreliosis. J Am Acad Dermotol  1990; 23:401-410. [chronic Lyme borreliosis].
  2. Aberer E, Klade H. Cutaneous manifestations of Lyme borreliosis. Infection 1991; 19:  284-286. [chronic Lyme borreliosis].
  3. Aberer E, Breier F, Stanek G, and Schmidt B. Success and failure in the treatment of  acrodermatitis chronica atrophicans skin rash. Infection 1996; 24: 85-87. 
  4. Aberer E, Kersten A, Klade H, Poitschek C, Jurecka W. Heterogeneity of Borrelia  burgdorferi in the skin. Am J Dermatopathol 1996; 18(6): 571-519. 
  5. Akin E, McHugh Gl, Flavell RA, Fikrig E, Steere AC. The immunoglobulin (IgG)  antibody response to OspA and OspB correlates with severe and prolonged Lyme arthritis  and the IgG response to P35 with mild and brief arthritis. Infect Immun 1999; 67: 173- 181. 
  6. Albert S, Schulze J, Riegel H, Brade V. Lyme arthritis in a 12-year-old patient after a  latency period of 5 years. Infection 1999; 27(4-5): 286-288. 
  7. Allred DR. Babesiosis: persistence in the face of adversity. Trends Parasitol. 2003;19:51– 55. 
  8. Al-Robaiy S, Dihazi H, Kacza J, et al. Metamorphosis of Borrelia burgdorferi  organisms―RNA, lipid and protein composition in context with the spirochete’s shape. J  Basic Microbiol 2010; 50 (Suppl 1): S5-17. 
  9. Appel MJG, Allan S, Jacobson RH, Lauderdale TL, Chang YF, Shin SJ, Thomford JW,  Todhunter RJ, Summers BA. Experimental Lyme disease in dogs produces arthritis and  persistent infection. J Infect Dis 1993; 167: 651-664. 
  10. Åsbrink E, Hovmark A. Successful cultivation of spirochetes from skin lesions of  patients with erythema chronicum migrans, Afzelius and acrodermatis chronica  atrophicans. Acta Pathol Microbiol Immunol Sect B 1985; 93: 161-163. 
  11. Åsbrink E, Hovmark A, and Olsson I. Clinical manifestations of acrodermatitis chronica  atrophicans in 50 Swedish patients. Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg A 1986; 26: 253- 261. [chronic Lyme borreliosis]. 
  12. Asch ES, Bujak DI, Weiss M, Peterson MGE, and Weinstein A. Lyme Disease: an  infectious and postinfectious syndrome. J Rheumatol 1994; 21 (3): 451-461.
  13. Bankhead T, Chaconas G. The role of VlsE antigenic variation in the Lyme disease  spirochete: persistence through a mechanism that differs from other pathogens. Molecular  Microbiology 2007; 65: 1547-1558. 
  14. Barthold SW, Persing DH, Armstrong AL, Peeples RA. Kinetics of Borrelia burgdorferi  dissemination and evolution of disease following intradermal inoculation of mice. Am J  Pathol 1991; 139: 263-273.  
  15. Barthold SW, deSouza MS, Janotka JL, Smith AL, Persing DH. Chronic Lyme  borreliosis in the laboratory mouse. Am J Pathol 1993; 143: 951-971.  
  16. Barthold SW, Hodzic E, Imai DM, Feng S, Yang X, and Luft BJ. Ineffectiveness of  tigecycline against persistent Borrelia burgdorferi. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010;  54(2): 643-651. 
  17. Barthold SW. Global challenges in diagnosing and managing Lyme disease—closing  knowledge gaps. Testimony before House Committee on Foreign Affairs, United States  Congress, 17 July 2012. Transcript available at: http://archives.republicans.foreignaffairs.house.gov/112/75161.pdf
  18. Battafarano DF, Combs JA, Enzenauer RJ, Fitzpatrick JE. Chronic septic arthritis caused  by Borrelia burgdorferi. Clin Orthop 1993;297: 238-241.  
  19. Baum E, Hue F, Barbour AG. Experimental infections of the reservoir species  Peromyscus leuopus with diverse strains of Borrelia burgdorferi, a Lyme disease agent.  Mbio. 2012;3: e00434-12.  
  20. Bayer ME, Zhang L, Bayer MH. Borrelia burgdorferi DNA in the urine of treated  patients with chronic Lyme disease symptoms. A PCR study of 97 cases. Infection. 1996;  24: 347-353.  
  21. Bentas W, Karch H, Huppertz HI. Lyme arthritis in children and adolescents: outcome 12  months after initiation of antibiotic therapy. J Rheumatol. 2000 Aug;27(8):2025-30. 22.
  22. Berger TG, Schoerner C, Schell H, Simon M, Schuler G, Röllinghoff M, Gessner A. Two  unusual cases of diffuse acrodermatitis chronica atrophicans seronegative for Lyme  borreliosis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2003 Jun;22(6):392-5. 
  23. Bergler-Klein J, Ullrich R, Glogar D, Stanek G. [Lyme borreliosis and  cardiomyopathy]. Wien Med Wochenschr. 1995;145(7-8):196-8. 
  24. Berglund J, Stjernberg L, Ornstein K, Tykesson-Joelsson K, Walter H. 5-y follow-up  study of patients with neuroborreliosis. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 2002; 34(6): 421-425.
  25. Berndtson K. Review of evidence for immune evasion and persistent infection in Lyme  disease. Int J of General Medicine 2013; 6: 291-306. [Lyme disease spirochetes are  adapted to persist in immune competent hosts; they are can remain infective despite  aggressive antibiotic challenge.] 
  26. Bloom BJ, Wyckoff PM, Meissner HC, Steere AC. Neurocognitive abnormalities in  children after classic manifestations of Lyme disease. Pediatric Infect. Dis. J. 1998;  17(3): 189-196. 
  27. Bradley JF, Johnson RC, Goodman JL. The persistence of spirochetal nucleic acids in  active Lyme arthritis. Ann Intern Med 1994;120: 487-489.  
  28. Bransfield R, Brand S, and Sherr V. Treatment of patients with persistent symptoms and  a history of Lyme disease. N Engl Med 2001; 345: 1424-5. 
  29. Breier F, Khanakah G, Stanek G, Aberer E, Schmidt B, and Tappeiner G. Isolation and  polymerase chain reaction typing of Borrelia afzelii from a skin lesion in a seronegative  patient with generalized ulcerating bullous lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. Br J Dermatol  2001; 144: 387-392. 
  30. Bockenstedt LK, Mao J, Hodzic E, Barthold SW, Fish D. Detection of attenuated, non infectious spirochetes in Borrelia burgdorferi-infected mice after antibiotic treatment. J  Infect Dis 2002; 186: 1430-1437.  
  31. Bockenstedt LK, Gonzalez DG, Hamberman AM, Belperron A. Spirochete antigens  persist near cartilage after murine Lyme borreliosis therapy. J Clin Invest 2012;122:  2652-2660.  
  32. Breier F, Kkhkanakah G, Stanek G, Kunz G, Aberer E, Schmidt B, Tappeiner G.  Isolation and polymerase chain reaction of Borrelia afzelii from a skin lesion in a  seronegative patient with generalized ulcereating bullous lichen sclerosus et atrophicus.  Br J Dermatol 2001; 144: 387-392. 
  33. Brorson O, Brorson S-H. Transformation of cystic forms of Borrelia burgdorferi to  normal mobile spirochetes. Infection. 1997; 25: 240-246. 
  34. Brorson O, Brorson S. In vitro conversion of Borrelia burgdorferi to cystic forms in  spinal fluid, and transformation to mobile spirochetes by incubation in BSK-H medium.  Infection. 1998; 26: 144-150. 
  35. Brorson O, Brorson SH. An in vitro study of the susceptibility of mobile and cystic forms  of Borrelia burgdorferi to metronidazole. APMIS 1999; 107: 566-576. 
  36. Brorson O, Brorson SH. An in vitro study of the susceptibility of mobile and cystic forms  of Borrelia burgdorferi to tinidazole. Int Microbiol 2004; 7: 139-142. 
  37. Brorson O, Brorson SH. An in vitro study of the activity of telithromycin against mobile  and cystic forms of Borrelia afzelii. Infection 2006; 34: 26-28. 
  38. Brorson O, Brorson SH, Scythes J, MacAllister J, Wier A, and Margulis L. Destruction of  spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi round-body propagules by the antibiotic tigecycline. Proc  Natl Acad Sci USA 2009; 106: 18656-61 
  39. Brown JP, Zachary JF, Teuscher C, Weis JJ, and Wooten M. Dual role of interleukin-10  in murine Lyme disease: regulation of arthritis severity and host defense. Infect Immun  1999; 67: 5142-5150.  
  40. Cabello FC, Godfrey HP, and Newman SA. Hidden in plain sight: Borrelia burgdorferi  and the extracellular matrix. Trends in Microbiology 2007; 15: 350-354.
  41. Cadavid D, O’Neill T, Schaefer H, and Pachner AR. Localization of Borrelia burgdorferi  in the nervous system and organs in a nonhuman primate model of Lyme disease. Lab  Invest 2000; 80: 1043-1054. 
  42. Cadavid D, Bai Y, Hodzic E, Narayan K, Barthold SW, Pachner AR. Cardiac  involvement in non-human primates infected with the Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia  burgdorferi. Lab Invest 2004; 84: 1439-1450.  
  43. Cameron D, Gaito A, Harris N et al. Evidence-based guidelines for the management of  Lyme disease. Expert Rev Anti-Infect. Ther 2004; 2 (Suppl. 1), S1-S13.
  44. Cameron DJ. Generalizability in two clinic trials of Lyme disease. Epidemiol Perspect  Innov. 2006 Oct 17;3:12. 
  45. Cameron D. Severity of Lyme disease with persistent symptoms. Insights from a double blind placebo-controlled clinical trial. Minerva Med 2008; 99: 489-496.
  46. Cameron DJ. Insufficient evidence to deny antibiotic treatment to chronic Lyme disease  patients. Med Hypotheses 2009 Jun;72(6):688-91. 
  47. Cameron DJ. Proof that chronic Lyme disease exists. Interdiscip Perspect Infect Dis.  2010;2010:876450. 
  48. Chancellor MB, McGinnis DE, Shenot PJ, Kiilholma P, Hirsch IH. Urinary dysfunction  in Lyme disease. J Urol 1993; 149: 26-30. 
  49. Chang YK, Ku YW, Chang CF, Chang CD, McDonough SP, Divers T, Pough M, Torres  A. Antibiotic treatment of experimentally Borrelia burgdorferi-infected ponies. Vet  Microbiol 2005; 107: 285-294. 
  50. Chao L-L, Lu C-F, and Shih C-M. Molecular detection and genetic identification of  Borrelia garinii and Borrelia afzelii from patients presenting with a rare skin  manifestation of prurigo pigmentosa in Taiwan. Int J Infect Dis 2013 Dec;17(12):e1141- 7. 
  51. Chakravarty KK, Webley M, Summers GD. A case of chronic Lyme arthritis in England.  Ann Rheum Dis. 1991 Feb;50(2):134-5. 
  52. Chary-Valckenaere I, Jaulhac B, Champigneulle J, Piement Y, Mainard D, and Pourel J.  Ultrastructural demonstration of intracellular localization of Borrelia burgdorferi in Lyme  arthritis. Br J Rheumatol 1998; 37: 468-470. 
  53. Chmielewski T, Tylewlska-Wierzhanowska S. Inhibition of fibroblast apoptosis by  Borrelia afzelii, Coxiella burnetii and Bartonella henselae. Poll Microbiol 2011; 60(3);  269-272. 
  54. Chomel BB, Kasten RW, Sykes JE, Boulouis HJ, Breitschwerdt EB. Clinical impact of  persistent Bartonella bacteremia in humans and animals. Ann N Y Acad Sci.  2003;990:267–278. 
  55. Cimmino MA, Azzolini A, Tobia F, Pesce CM. Spirochetes in the spleen of a patient with chronic Lyme disease. Am J Clin Pathol 1989; 91(1): 95-97.
  56. Clarke AE, Esdaile JM, Bloch DA, Lacaille D, Danoff, and Fries JF. A Canadian study of  the total medical costs for patients with systemic lupus erythema and the predictors of  costs. Arthrit. Rheum. 1993; 36(11): 1548-1593. 
  57. Coblyn JS, Taylor P. Treatment of chronic Lyme arthritis with hydroxychloroquine.  Arthritis Rheum. 1981 Dec;24(12):1567-9. 
  58. Collares-Pereira M, Couceiro S, Franca I, Kurtenbach K, Schäfer SM, Vitorino L,  Gonçalves L, Baptista S, Vieira ML, Cunha C. First isolation of Borrelia lusitaniae  from a human patient. J Clin Microbiol. 2004 Mar;42(3):1316-8. 
  59. Craft J, Fischer DK, Shimamoto GT, Steere AC. Antigens of Borrelia burgdorferi  recognized during Lyme disease appearance of a new immunoglobulin M response and  expansion of the immunoglobulin G response late in the illness. J. Clin. Invest. 1986;  78:934-939. 
  60. Dattwyler RJ, Volkman DJ, Luft BJ, Halperin JJ, Thomas J, Golightly MG. Seronegative  Lyme disease. Dissociation of specific T- and B-lymphocyte response to Borrelia  burgdorferi. N Engl J Med 1988; 319(22): 1441-1446. 
  61. Dejmková H, D Hulinska, D Tegzová, K Pavelka, J Gatterová, and P Vavřik.  Seronegative Lyme arthritis caused by Borrelia garinii. Clin Rheumatol 2002; 21:330- 334. 
  62. de Koning J, et al. Demonstration of spirochetes in cardiac biopsies of patients with  Lyme disease. J. Infect. Dis. 1989; 160: 150-153. [intracellular sanctuaries of Bb]
  63. de Leeuw BH, Maraha B, Hollemans L, Sprong H, Brandenburg AH, Westenend PJ,  Kusters JG. Evaluation of Borrelia real time PCR DNA targeting OspA, FlaB and 5S-23S  IGS and Borrelia 16S rRNA-qPCR. J Microbiol Methods 2014 Dec;107:41-6.
  64. de Souza MS, Smith AL, Beck DS, Terwilliger GA, Fikrig E, Barthold SW. Long-term  study of cell-mediated responses to Borrelia burgdorferi in the laboratory mouse. Infect  Immun. 1993 May;61(5):1814-22. 
  65. DeLong AK, Blossom B, Maloney E, and Phillips SE. Antibiotic retreatment of Lyme  disease in patients with persistent symptoms: A biostatistical review of randomized,  placebo-controlled, clinical trials. Contemp Clin Trials 2012 Nov;33(6):1132-42. 
  66. Demaershalck I, Messaoud AB, de Kesel M, Hoyois B, Lobet Y, Hoet P, Bigaignon G,  Bollen A, Godfroid E. Simultaneous presence of different Borrelia burgdorferi  genospecies in biological fluids of Lyme disease patients. J Clin Microbiol 1995: 33;  602-608. 
  67. Dinerman H, Steere AC. Lyme disease associated with fibromyalgia. Ann Intern Med.  1992 Aug 15;117(4):281-5. 
  68. Diterich I, Rauter C, Kirschning CJ, and Hartung T. Borrelia burgdorferi-induced  tolerance as a model of persistence via immunosuppression. Infect Immun. 2003;  71(7):3979-3987. 
  69. Donahue JG, Piesman J, Spielman A. Reservoir competence of white-footed mice for  Lyme disease spirochetes. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1987;36: 92-96.  
  70. Donta ST. Tetracycline therapy for chronic Lyme disease. Clin Inf Dis. 1997; 25 (Suppl  1); S52-56. 
  71. Donta ST. The existence of chronic Lyme disease. Curr Treat Op Infect Dis. 2001; 3:  261-262. 
  72. Donta ST. Late and chronic Lyme disease. Med Clin North Am. 2002; 86: 341-349.
  73. Donta ST. Macrolide therapy of chronic Lyme disease. Med Sci Monit. 2003; 9: 136-142.
  74. Dorward DW, Fischer ER, and Brooks DM. Invasion and cytopathic killing of human lymphocytes by spirochetes causing Lyme disease. Clin. Infect. Dis. 1997. 25 Suppl 1:  S2-8. [intracellular sanctuaries of Bb]
  75. Dumler JS, Bakken JS. Human granulocytic ehrlichiosis in Wisconsin and Minnesota: a frequent infection with the potential for persistence. J Infect Dis. 1996;173:1027– 1030.
  76. Dunham-Ems SM, Caimano MJ, Pal U, et al. Live imaging reveals a biphasic mode of  dissemination of Borrelia burgdorferi within ticks. J Clin Invest. 2009; 119: 3652-3665.
  77. Duray PH and Johnson RC. The histopathology of experimentally infected hamsters with  the Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1986; 181:  263-269. 
  78. Duray PH. The surgical pathology of human Lyme disease. An enlarging picture. Am J  Surg Pathol 1987; 11 (Suppl 1):47-60. 
  79. Duray PH, Steere AC. Clinical pathologic correlations of Lyme disease by stage. Ann N  Y Acad Sci 1988; 539: 65-79.  
  80. Duray PH, et al. Invasion of human tissue ex vivo by Borrelia burgdorferi. J Infect Dis.  2005; 191(10): 1747-1754. 
  81. Durovska J, Bazovska S, Ondrisova M, and Pancak J. 2010. Our experience with  examination of antibodies against antigens of Borrelia burgdorferi in patients with  suspected Lyme disease. Bratist. Lek. Listy 2010; 111(3): 153-155. 
  82. Dvorakova J, and Celer V. Pharmacological aspects of Lyme borreliosis. Seska Slov  Farm. 2004(Jul); 53(4): 159-164. 
  83. Ebel GD, Campbell EN, Goethert HK, Spielman A, and Telford SR. Enzootic  transmission of deer tick virus in New England and Wisconsin sites. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2000; 63(1-2): 36-42. 
  84. Ekdahl KN, Henningsson AJ, Sandholm K, Forsberg P, Ernerudh J, Ekerfelt C. Immunity  in borreliosis with special emphasis on the role of complement. Adv Exp Med Biol 2007;  598: 198-213. 
  85. Embers ME, SW Barthold, JT Borda, et al. Persistence of Borrelia burgdorferi in rhesus  macaques following antibiotic treatment of disseminated infection. PLoS ONE 2012;7(1):  e29914. 
  86. Embers ME, Ramamoorthy R, Philipp MT. Survival strategies of Borrelia burgdorferi,  the etiologic agent of Lyme disease. Microbes Infect. 2004 Mar;6(3):312-8. Review.
  87. Eng TR, Harkess JR, Fishbein DB, Dawson JE, Greene CN, Redus MA, Satalowich FT.  Epidemiologic, clinical, and laboratory findings of human ehrlichiosis in the United  States, 1988. JAMA 1990 Nov 7;264(17):2251-8. 
  88. Fallon BA, et al. Repeated antibiotic treatment in chronic Lyme disease. J Spiro Tick  Borne Dis. 1999; 6: 94-101. 
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  90. Fein L, Tilton RC. Bone marrow as a source for Borrelia burgdorferi DNA. J Spiro Tick borne Dis. 1997; 4: 58-60. 
  91. Feng J, Shi W, Zhang S, Zhang Y. Persister mechanisms in Borrelia burgdorferi:  implications for improved intervention. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2015 Aug;4(8):e51.
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  94. Franz JK, O Fritze, M Rittig et al. Insights from a novel three-dimensional in vitro model  of Lyme arthritis: standardized analysis of cellular and molecular interactions between  Borrelia burgdorferi and synovial explants and fibroblasts. Arthritis Rheum 2001; 44:  151-162. 
  95. Fraser DD, Kong LI, and Miller FW. Molecular detection of persistent Borrelia  burgdorferi in a man with dermatomyositis. Clin Exp Rheumatol 1992; 10: 387-390.
  96. Frey M, Jaulhac B, Piemont Y, Marcellin L, Boohs PM, Vautravers P, Jesel M, Kuntz JL,  Monteil H, and Sibilia J. Detection of Borrelia burgdorferi DNA in muscle of patients with chronic myalgia related to Lyme disease. Am J Med 1988; 104: 591-594.
  97. Gaito A, Gjivoje V, Lutz S, II, and Baxter B, II. Comparative analysis of the infectivity  rate of both Borrelia burgdorferi and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in humans and dogs in  a New Jersey community. Infect. Drug Resist. 2014; 7: 199-201. [persistence of Bb in  humans and dogs]
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  99. Garcia-Monco JC, Benach JL. The pathogenesis of Lyme disease. Rheum Dis Clin North  Am. 1989; 15: 711-726. 
  100. Gasser R, Horn S, Reisinger E, Fischer L, Pokan R, Wendelin I, Klein W. First  description of recurrent pericardial effusion associated with borrelia burgdorferi  infection. Int J Cardiol. 1998 May 15;64(3):309-10. 
  1. Gellis SE, Stadecker MJ, Steere AC. Spirochetes in atrophic skin lesions  accompanied by minimal host response in a child with Lyme disease. J Am Acad  Dermatol. 1991 Aug;25(2 Pt 2):395-7
  2. Georgilis K, Peacocke M, and Klempner MS. Fibroblasts protect the Lyme  disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi, from ceftriaxone in vitro. J Infect Dis 1992; 166:  440-444. 
  3. Giambartolomei GH, Dennis VA, and Philipp MT. Borrelia burgdorferi  stimulates the production of interleukin-10 in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from  uninfected humans and rhesus monkeys. Infect Immun 1998; 66: 2691-2697.  [suppression of harmful immune responses: defense stratagem of B. burgdorferi] 
  4. Girschick HJ, Huppertz HI, Rüssmann H, Krenn V, and Karch H. Intracellular  persistence of Borrelia burgdorferi in human synovial cells. Rheumatol Int. 1996; 16:  125-132. [intracellar sanctuaries of Bb] 
  5. Goodman JL, Jurkovich P, Kodner C, and Johnson RC. Persistent cardiac and  urinary tract infections with Borrelia burgdorferi in experimentally infected Syrian  hamsters. J Clin Microbiol 1991; 29: 894-896. [hamsters] 
  6. Grignolo MC, Buffrini L, Monteforte P, and Rovetta G. Reliability of a  polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique in the diagnosis of Lyme borreliosis. Minerva  Med 2001; 92(1): 29-33.  
  7. Gruntar I, et al. Conversion of Borrelia garinii cystic forms to motile spirochetes  in vivo. APMIS 2001; 109(5): 383-388.  
  8. Hamlen R. Tick-borne infections--a growing public health threat to school-age  children. Prevention steps that school personnel can take. NASN School Nurse  2012(Mar); 27(2): 94-100.  
  9. Hamlen RA, Kliman DS. Pediatric Lyme disease--A school issue: Tips for school  nurses. NASN School Nurse 2009; 24; 114 . 
  10. Harrus S, Waner T, Aizenberg I, Foley JE, Poland AM, Bark H. Amplification of ehrlichial DNA from dogs 34 months after infection with Ehrlichia canis. J Clin  Microbiol. 1998;36:73–76. 
  11. Harvey WT, Bransfield RC, Mercer DE, Wright AJ, Ricchi RM, Leitao MM.  Morgellons disease, illuminating an undefined illness: a case series. J Med Case Rep 2009; 3:8243 . 
  12. Hassler D, Riedel K, Zorn J, Preac-Mursic V. Pulsed high-dose cefotaxime  therapy in refractory Lyme borreliosis. Lancet 1991; 338: 193. 
  13. Hastey CJ, Elsner RA, Barthold SW, Baumgarth N. Delays and diversions mark  the development of B cell responses to Borrelia burgdorferi infection. J Immunol. 2012  Jun 1;188(11):5612-22.
  14. Häupl T, Hahn G, Rittig M, Krause A, Schoerner C, Schönherr U, Kalden JR,  Burmester GR. Persistence of Borrelia burgdorferi in ligamentous tissue from a  patient with chronic Lyme borreliosis. Arthritis Rheum. 1993 Nov;36(11):1621-6. 
  15. Henneberg JP, and Neubert U. Borrelia burgdorferi group: in vitro antibiotic  sensitivity. Orv Hetil 2002; 143: 1195-1198. 
  16. Hefty PS, Brooks CS, Jett AM, White GL, Wikel SK, et al. OspE-related, OspF related, and Elp lipoproteins are immunogenic in baboons experimentally infected with  Borrelia burgdorferi and in human Lyme disease patients. J Clin Microbiol 2002;40:  4256-4265.  
  17. Hilton E, Tramontano A, DeVoti J, and Sood SK. Temporal study of  immunoglobulin M seroreactivity to Borrelia burgdorferi in patients treated for Lyme  borreliosis. J Clin Microbiol 1997; 35(3): 774-776. 
  18. Hodzic E, Feng S, Barthold SW. Stability of Borrelia burgdorferi outer surface  protein C under immune selection pressure. J Infect Dis. 2000; 181: 750-753.
  19. Hodzic E, Feng S, Holden K, Freet KJ, Barthold SW. Persistence of Borrelia  burgdorferi following antibiotic treatment in mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008;  52: 1728-1736.  
  20. Holden K, Hodzic E, Feng S, Freet KJ, Lefebvre RB, Barthold SW. Coinfection  with Anaplasma phagocytophilum alters Borrelia burgdorferi population distribution in  C3H/HeN mice. Infect Immun. 2005 Jun;73(6):3440-4. 
  21. Holl-Weiden A, Suerbaum S, Girschick HJ. Seronegative Lyme arthritis.  Rheumatology International 2007; 11: 1091-1093. 
  22. Honegr K, Hulinska D, Dostal V, Gebousky P, Hankova E, Horacek J, Vyslouzil  L, Havlasova J. Persistence of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in patients with Lyme  borreliosis. Epidemiol Mikrobiol Immunol. 2001; 50: 10-16. 
  23. Huang CY, Chen YW, Kao TH, Kao HK, Lee YC, Cheng JC, Wang JH.  Hyperbaric oxygen therapy as an effective adjunctive treatment for chronic Lyme  disease. J Chin Med Assoc. 2014 May;77(5):269-71. 
  24. Hudson BJ, Stewart M, Lennox VA, Fukunaga M, Yabuki M, Macorison H,  Kitchener-Smith J. Culture-positive Lyme borreliosis. Med J Aust. 1998; 168(10): 500- 502. 
  25. Hulínská D, Krausova M, Janovská D, Rohácová H, Hancil J, Mailer H. Electron  microscopy and the polymerase chain reaction of spirochetes from the blood of patients with Lyme disease. Cent Eur J Public Health 1993; 1(2): 81-85. 
  26. Hulinska D, Votypka J, and Valesova M. Persistence of Borrelia garinii and  Borrelia afzelii in patients with Lyme arthritis. Int J Med Microbiol Virol Parasitol  Infecdt Dis 1999; 289(3): 301-318. 
  27. Hunfeld KP, Ruzic-Sabljic E, Norris DE, Kraiczy P, and Strle F. In vitro  susceptibility testing of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato isolates cultured from patients  with erythema migrans before and after antimicrobial chemotherapy. Antimicro Agents  Chemother 2005; 49: 1294-1301. 
  28. Johnson RC, Marek N, Kodner C. Infection of Syrian hamsters with Lyme  disease spirochetes. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1984; 20: 1099-1101.
  29. Johnson L, Stricker RB. Treatment of Lyme disease: a medicolegal assessment.  Expert Rev Anti-Infect Ther 2004. 2: 533-557. 
  30. Kaiser R. Clinical courses of acute and chronic neuroborreliosis following  treatment with ceftriaxone. Nervenarzt. 2004; 75(6): 553-557. 
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  64. Pappolla MA, Omar R, Saran B, et al. Concurrent neuroborreliosis and Alzheimer's  disease: analysis of the evidence. Hum Pathol 1989;20(8): 753-7. 
  65. Riek R. Infectious Alzheimer’s disease? Nature 2006;444: 429-431 . 
  66. Ruitenberg A, den Heijer T, Bakker SL, van Swieten JC, Koudstaal PJ, Hofman A,  Breteler MM. Cerebral hypoperfusion and clinical onset of dementia: the Rotterdam  study. Ann Neurol. 2005;57: 789-94. 
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Congenital/Sexual Transmission of Lyme/TBD

  1. Alekseev AN, Dubinina HV. Exchange of Borrelia burgdorferi between Ixodes  persulcatus (Ixodidae: Acarina) sexual partners. J Med Entomol. 1996;33(3):351–354.
  2. Carlomagno G, Luksa V, Candussi G, et al. Lyme Borrelia positive serology associated  with spontaneous abortion in an endemic Italian area. Acta Eur Fertil 1988;19(5), 279-81. 
  3. Burgess EC, Amundson TE, Davis JP, et al.: Experimental inoculation of Peromyscus  spp. with Borrelia burgdorferi: evidence of contact transmission. Am J Trop Med Hyg.  1986; 35(2): 355–9. 
  4. Gardner T. Lyme disease. In JS Remington and JO Klein (eds.), Infectious Diseases of  the Fetus and New Born Infant. WB Saunders Co., Philadelphia, PA. 2001, pp. 519-641. 
  5. Harvey WT, Salvato P. ‘Lyme disease’: ancient engine of an unrecognized borreliosis  pandemic? Med Hypotheses. 2003;60(5):742-59.  
  6. Hercogova J, Vanousova D. Syphilis and borreliosis during pregnancy. Dermatol Ther  2008;21(3), 205-9. 
  7. Jasik KP, Okła H, Słodki J, Rozwadowska B, Słodki A, Rupik W. Congenital tick-borne  diseases: Is this an alternative route of transmission of tick-borne pathogens in mammals?  Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2015 Nov;15(11):637-44.  
  8. Kumi-Diaka J, Harris O. Viability of Borrelia burgdorferi in stored semen. Br Vet J. 1995  Mar-Apr;151(2):221-4.  
  9. Lakos A, Solymosi N. Maternal Lyme borreliosis and pregnancy outcome. Int J Infect  Dis 2010;14(6): e494-8.  
  10. Lavoie PE, Lattner BP, Duray PH, Barbour AG, Johnson HC. Culture positive  seronegative transplacental Lyme borreliosis infant mortality. Arthritis Rheum. 1987; 30  No 4, 3(Suppl):S50. 
  11. MacDonald AB. Gestational Lyme borreliosis. Implications for the fetus. Rheum Dis  Clin North Am. 1989 Nov;15(4):657-77.  
  12. MacDonald AB. Human fetal borreliosis, toxemia of pregnancy, and fetal death.  Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg A. 1986 Dec;263(1- 2):189-200.  
  13. MacDonald AB, Benach JL, Burgdorfer W. Stillbirth following maternal Lyme disease.  N Y State J Med. 1987 Nov;87(11):615-6.  
  14. Markowitz LE, Steere AC, Benach JL, et al. Lyme disease during pregnancy.  JAMA.1986; 255(24): 3394-6.  
  15. Mikkelsen AL, Palle C. Lyme disease during pregnancy. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand  1987;66(5): 477-8.  
  16. Mylonas I. Borreliosis during pregnancy: A risk for the unborn child? Vector Borne  Zoonotic Dis. 2011;11:891-8.  
  17. Nadal D, Hunziker UA, Bucher HU, et al. Infants born to mothers with antibodies against  Borrelia burgdorferi at delivery. Eur J Pediatr 1989;148(5): 426-7.  
  18. Onk G, Acun C, Kalayci M, Cagavi F, et al. Gestational Lyme disease as a rare cause of  congenital hydrocephalus. J Turkish German Gyn Assoc Artemis. 2005; 6(2): 156-157.
  19. Schlesinger PA, Duray PH, Burke BA, Steere AC, Stillman MT. Maternal-fetal  transmission of the Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi. Ann Intern Med. 1985;103: 67-8.  
  20. Schutzer SE, Janniger CK, Schwartz RA. Lyme disease during pregnancy. Cutis  1991;47(4): 267-8.  
  21. Silver H. Lyme disease during pregnancy. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 1997;11(1):93–97.
  22. Stricker RB, Middelveen MJ. Sexual transmission of Lyme disease: challenging the  tickborne disease paradigm. Expert Rev Anti-Infect Ther. 2015;13:1303–1306.
  23. Stricker RB, Moore DH, Winger EE. Clinical and immunologic evidence of transmission  of Lyme disease through intimate human contact. J Invest Med. 2004;52: S15
  24. Strobino BA, Williams CL, Abid S, et al. Lyme disease and pregnancy outcome: a  prospective study of two thousand prenatal patients. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1993; 169(2  Pt 1): 367-74.  
  25. van Holten J, Tiems J, Jongen VH. Neonatal Borrelia duttoni infection: a report of three  cases. Trop Doct 1997;27(2): 115-6.  
  26. Weber K; Bratzke HJ, Neubert U, Wilske B, Duray PH. Borrelia burgdorferi in a  newborn despite oral penicillin for Lyme borreliosis during pregnancy. Pediatr Infect Dis  J. 1988; 7:286-9.  
  27. Williams CL, Strobino B, Weinstein A, et al. Maternal Lyme disease and congenital  malformations: a cord blood serosurvey in endemic and control areas. Paediatr Perinat  Epidemiol 1995;9(3): 320-30. 

ILADS is grateful to Drs. Robert Bransfield, Bernt-Dieter Huismans, Steven Phillips, John Scott  and Raphael Stricker for help with compiling this list of references.

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